Carey HV. Use of the nutrients in bamboo by the red panda (. Buddington RK, Chen JW, Diamond JM. In these plots, increasing animal matter in the bats natural diet is indicated by increasing 15N in the bats tissue, and points are species means. Effects of diet quality on phenotypic flexibility of organ size and digestive function in Mongolian gerbils (. (423, 424) showed that usnic acid was apparently degraded in the rumen, and characterized a resistant bacterium that they proposed be named Eubacterium rangiferina. In this section, the relationship between diet composition and digestive enzyme activity is addressed first, followed by consideration of transporters in the GI tract. Cahu C, Infante JZ. In: Rosenthal GA, Janzen DH, editors. Sweet taste receptors in rat small intestine stimulate glucose absorption through apical GLUT2. Yet this multi-faceted system involves many complex interactive functions.The goal of this paper is to describe the organs involved in digestive and biological functions (Figure 1). F represents females and M represents males. A metagenome analysis of fecal samples from 18 human individuals revealed a very diverse array of bacterial genes active against carbohydrates, collectively accounting for 2.6% of the sequences; the particularly high interindividual variation in the complement of glucoside hydrolase genes, even among members of the same family, was attributed to dietary factors (441). In pigs, the stomach is significant during growth. Regulation of gut function varies with life-history traits in chuckwallas (Sauromalus obesus: Iguanidae), Tsahar E, Friedman J, Izhaki I. Subsequently, other SNPs were identified that correlated with lactose tolerance, and analyses seem to indicate that convergent evolution of the phenotype occurred a number of times at different locations (138). Utilization of bamboo by the giant panda. Regional expression and dietary regulation of rat small intestinal peptide and amino acid transporter mRNAs. Cant JP, McBride BW, Croom WJ., Jr The regulation of intestinal metabolism and its impact on whole animal energetics. In both cases, the observed declines were smaller than those predicted, which may reflect some spare volumetric and enzymatic capacity relative to intake rate, but the integrated analysis suggests that the models [Eq. Compare pig anatomy to human anatomy. The diffusive component of intestinal glucose absorption is mediated by the glucose-induced recruitment of GLUT2 to the brush-border membrane. Additional advantages are the maintenance of the concentration gradient between the lumen of the rumen and epithelial cell contents, so promoting sustained SCFA uptake, and the greater solubility of the products (lactate etc.) Whether or not the animal has intrinsic cellulolytic capability, it appears that fermentative symbioses with microbes and fungi are generally important for cellulose degradation in animals (see Section Microbial transformation of digestively-intractable food constituents to compounds that are readily used by the animal). These might include osmotically based mechanisms, which might draw water into the lumen by acting as introduced osmolytes or by receptor-mediated increase in secretion of ions, or by a nonosmotic mechanism such as direct action on motility patterns via receptor-mediated changes in neuromuscular activity [e.g., reference (27)]. Ohkuma M, Noda S, Hongoh Y, Nalepa CA, Inoue T. Inheritance and diversification of symbiotic trichonymphid flagellates from a common ancestor of termites and the cockroach Cryptocercus. The taxon richness of the gut microbiota, usually identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, is typically an order of magnitude greater in vertebrates than invertebrates, and the interspecific variation in microbial composition is strongly influenced by diet. Remis MJ, Dierenfeld ES. An official website of the United States government. Voght SP, Fluegel ML, Andrews LA, Pallanck LJ. These esterified products are incorporated into apolipoprotein (apo)B48-containing chylomicrons in a microsomal triglyceride transport protein-dependent manner. Major changes in GI enzymes and transporters occur during development in many animals. Wagner CE, McIntyre PB, Buels KS, Gilbert DM, Michel E. Diet predicts intestine length in Lake Tanganyikas cichlid fishes. The phloric sphincter regulates the amount of chyme (digesta) that passes into the small intestine. Small intestine volume, a direct function of tube length and area, and consequently the potential mass of digesta carried, was relatively smaller in birds, by 32%. Prickleback fishes, which include species that shift during development from carnivory to herbivory as well as species that remain carnivores, have provided examples of intrinsic vs. dietary induced changes in GI structure and function (51, 177, 178), but the picture is a complicated one in which intrinsic changes, diet, and phylogeny all play a role in determining developmental patterns. Circulatory system. Over early time points, the amounts of L-glucose absorbed was 50% to 70% of the amounts of D-glucose absorbed, which was interpreted to mean that the majority of glucose was absorbed by the paracellular pathway. Doring F, Will J, Amasheh S, Clauss W, Ahlbrecht H, Daniel H. Minimal molecular determinants of substrates for recognition by the intestinal peptide transporter. Consequently, SCFAs permeate membranes more slowly by simple diffusion, and cellular transport mechanisms are especially important for SCFA absorption. Bik EM, Eckburg PB, Gill SR, Nelson KE, Purdom EA, Francois F, Perez-Perez G, Blaser MJ, Relman DA. Permeability of the rat small intestine to carbohydrate probe molecules. Many studies on vertebrates have demonstrated that the production of digestive enzymes increases with availability of substrate in the gut lumen. Bile salts, which are the active portion of bile in the digestion process, primarily assist in the digestion and absorption of fat but also help with absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and aids pancreatic lipase in the small intestine. Application of their basic principles can also explain why animals processing different types of food may exhibit differences in their overall digestive strategy. Also, to our knowledge no one has yet measured the activity of lysozyme in the GI tract of birds. Coexpression of ATP-binding cassette proteins ABCG5 and ABCG8 permits their transport to the apical surface. Corpe CP, Burant CF. Skopec MM, Hagerman AE, Karasov WH. Lysozyme [hydrolyzes peptidoglycan in G(+) bacterial cell walls (. Flashcards. The implications of these rodent studies for human nutrition are not yet fully resolved. The biochemical flexibility is generally considered to maximize the acquisition of carbon for energy production and essential nutrients for maintenance and growth, while protecting against the acquisition of excessive, potentially toxic, amounts of certain dietary constituents (e.g., iron). The key disadvantage of pregastric fermentation for the animal is that ingested food is available for microbial metabolism before digestion by the animal. In addition, differences are observed in response to leukotrienes, indicating an underlying mechanistic distinction between humans and guinea pigs. Herbivory in global climate change research: Direct effects of rising temperature on insect herbivores. Phylogenetically informed analyses of digestive enzymes in birds have revealed both dietary and phylogenetic influences. This effect is important, for example, for the uptake of various solutes by passerine birds, for which paracellular absorption is significant (Section Paracellular transport of organic molecules). Shimada K, Maekawa K. Changes in endogenous cellulase gene expression levels and reproductive characteristics of primary and secondary reproductives with colony development of the termite Reticulitermes speratus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). H. Karasov, unpublished data). In humans and other mammals, all regions of the GI tract are colonized, including the highly acidic stomach, which bears a diverse community of bacteria and some fungi (30). Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 protein is critical for intestinal cholesterol absorption. Unexpected similarity of intestinal sugar absorption by SGLT1 and apical GLUT2 in an insect (Aphidius ervi, Hymenoptera) and mammals. But, microbes potentially provide their hosts more than those energy-rich fermentation products. Ito Y, Hirashima M, Yamada H, Imoto T. Colonic lysozymes of rabbit (Japanese white) - recent divergence and functional conversion. Thus, IAP helps keep in check the intestines defensive mechanism(s) against bacteria, and in this way, it participates in intestinal tolerance of commensal bacteria. Skopec MM, Green AK, Karasov WH. SCFAs are transported by the H+/monocarboxylate transporter MCT1 in several colonic cancer cell lines, including Caco-2 cells, (282) and by a Na+-dependent SCFA transporter, SLCA8, cloned from the human intestine (324), but the relevance of these transporters to SCFA transport in the colon and cecum of healthy mammals in vivo is uncertain. But, this response leads to increased fecal loss of the energy and nitrogen in the tannin-protein complex and thus to a decline in apparent digestive efficiency, though not true digestive efficiency per se (409). Low-affinity/high-capacity peptide transporters expressed in the alimentary tract have been characterized functionally in nonmammalian vertebrates, notably the chicken (184), zebrafish (454), and other fish (455), and in Caenorhabditis elegans (317) and Drosophila (382). This condition is not, however, universal among insects. Remarkably, however, nitrogen-15 labeled lysine appears in human plasma proteins hours after labeled urea is administered (168). Some data suggest that sugar-induced translocation of GLUT2 may not occur universally in mammals (18, 330), and further research is required to establish the distribution of this effect with respect to phylogeny and diet. The products of insect lipid digestion are absorbed principally across the midgut epithelium, although absorption in the foregut, e.g. The GI tracts of animals, including herbivorous mammals and wood-feeding insects, are recognized as cellulose-rich environments that are currently being targeted in gene discovery projects for biofuels development and other industrial purposes (130). Desroches P, Mandon N, Baehr JC, Huignard J. Effect of age and diet on total and paracellular glucose absorption in nestling house sparrows. This portion of the small intestine involves both the further breakdown of nutrients as well as the beginning of absorption of nutrients. Torrallardona D, Harris CI, Fuller MF. Competitive inhibition by flavonoid transport does not seem to be the mechanism. In: Starck JM, Wang T, editors. If a young mammal is allowed to prolong suckling, or is fed on a lactose-containing diet after weaning, the onset of the decline in lactase is delayed, but only slightly. Intestinal barrier function and absorption in pigs after weaning: A review. Fat metabolism in insects. Brzek P, Caviedes-Vidal E, Hoefer K, Karasov WH. Felix CR, Betschart B, Billingsley PF, Freyvogal TA. Recent findings about intestinal alkaline phosphate (IAP) have provided new insights about the former function, and intestinal lysozyme and pancreatic ribonuclease are key components of the latter function. Wijtten PJA, van der Meulen J, Verstegen MWA. S represents those starved for 6, 24, 48, and 72 h. RF represents larvae starved for half the time period indicated and then fed the latter half of the time period indicated. This can result in reduced nutritional gain from high-quality foods. Nutrient absorption continues into the final section of the small intestine, the ileum. Huvet A, Jeffroy F, Fabioux C, Daniel JY, Quillien V, Van Wormhoudt A, Moal J, Samain JF, Boudry P, Pouvreau S. Association among growth, food consumption-related traits and amylase gene polymorphism in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Shu R, David ES, Ferraris RP. Studies in cats and rats yielded some evidence for particular changes in transporter-specific activity or intestinal mass coinciding with whole-organism growth rate peaks (53, 435). Zhao JM, Qiu LH, Ning XX, Chen AQ, Wu HF, Li CH. Mediation of host-plant use by a glucoside in Callosobruchus maculatus F (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Wickramasinghe DD, Oseen KL, Wassersug RJ. Nielsen HM, Rassing MR. Nicotine permeability across the buccal TR146 cell culture model and porcine buccal mucosa in vitro: Effect of pH and concentration. Binding of phlorizin to the isolated C-terminal extramembranous loop of the Na+/glucose cotransporter assessed by intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence. Adeola O, King DE. Transcriptional and posttranscriptional adjustments mediate phenotypic changes in the expression of hydrolases and transporters in response to dietary signals. Learning Objectives. to acquire those all. Examples of Impacts of Plant Secondary Metabolites on Digestive Processes. (1)], which assumes that conversion/extraction efficiency will decline when reactant concentration increases unless compensatory changes occur in retention time and/or hydrolysis/absorption rate. Biviano AB, Del Rio CM, Phillips DL. The caecum has a second portion where it connects to the colon, where digesta is passed to the rectum and anus where the remaining digesta is excreted.The main function of the large intestine is the absorption of water. Furthermore, AMY1 copy number and salivary amylase protein levels in humans generally are at least three times higher than in chimpanzees and bonobos, whose diets are composed predominantly of fruit and leaves that contain much less starch than the diets of most human populations. The digestive system of a pig is well suited for complete concentrate based rations that are typically fed. Diurnal variation of GLUT2 and Pept-1 is regulated by the vagus nerve, and GLUT5 by paracrine and endocrine signals in the intestine (371, 427). Specificity of proantho-cyanidin-protein interactions. Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases. Evolution of regulatory responses to feeding in snakes. German DP, Neuberger DT, Callahan MN, Lizardo NR, Evans DH. Among insects, glucose transport across the midgut of the hymenopteran parasite Aphidius ervi is mediated by a SGLT1-like transporter on the apical membrane, together with a GLUT2-like transporter on both the apical and basolateral membranes of the enterocytes; and a second passive transporter similar to GLUT-5 is implicated in fructose uptake (58). A recent meta-analysis (339) underscores aspects of this general response in more than two dozen studies of laboratory mice and rats. Fish amylases and glucose transporters appear to be molecularly closely related to those in mammals and to have comparable characteristics (165, 269). The pancreas serves as the most vial organ in the digestive process for producing and secreting enzymes needed for the digestion of chyme and the prevention of cell damage due to pH.In addition to the pancreas secreting into the duodenum, bile, which is stored in the gall bladder and produced by the liver, is secreted as well. Peptide absorption. Hewson-Hughes AK, Hewson-Hughes VL, Miller AT, Hall SR, Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D. Geometric analysis of macronutrient selection in the adult domestic cat, Hirayama C, Konno K, Wasano N, Nakamura M. Differential effects of sugar-mimic alkaloids in mulberry latex on sugar metabolism and disaccharidases of Eri and domesticated silkworms: Enzymatic adaptation of. Response of nutrient digestibilities to feeding diets with low and high levels of soybean trypsin inhibitors in growing pigs. Porter EM, Bevins CL, Ghosh D, Ganz T. The multifaceted Paneth cell. Diamond JM, Karasov WH. Meta-analyses of effects of phytochemicals on digestibility and rumen fermentation characteristics associated with methanogenesis. DmNAT6 is an active transporter, capable of mediating uptake against the concentration gradient. Identification of a variant associated with adult-type hypolactasia. There is a shunt between the wall of the right and left atrium called the foramen ovale. A. aegypti has three trypsin genes expressed in the midgut. It is acidic rather than neutral (230). The transport of nutrients that are metabolized for energy production increase with increasing dietary supply, while those mediating the uptake of essential but non energy-yielding nutrients tend to decrease with increasing dietary supply. As in humans, the integumentary system of the pig includes the skin, hair, fingernails, and toenails. The appendix in humans is the evolutionary remains of a larger cecum in human ancestors. In addition, it has exocrine functions of secreting digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate.The digestive enzymes secreted break down (hydrolyse) proteins, fats, and carbohydrates in the chyme. This is a great improvement over the earliest studies that were sometimes two-species comparisons, which are plagued with a number of difficulties as regards inference about correlated evolution of diet and physiological traits (172). In experiments conducted on avian species, the fractional absorption of D-glucose and 3OMD-glucose did not differ significantly; and L-glucose was found to account for the majority (range 50 to > 90%) of glucose absorption (79, 238, 316) (Fig. Chamberlain ME, Phillips JE. Terra WR, Ferreira C. Insect digestive enzymes - properties, compartmentalization and function. These data suggest that an insect has the capacity to regulate digestive enzymes homeostatically, such that enzymes yielding nutrients in excess are secreted at lower rates than enzymes that generate nutrients in deficit.
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