Author KR then coded 100% of articles. [35] found higher health-related quality of life 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog on one of three measures used [EuroQol Visual Analog Scale; 56]. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. Regarding sleep, Guest found better self-reported sleep quality 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog while Rodriguez et al. In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. In the mobility domain, only Milan [41] found a significant effect of having a mobility service dog on the CHART mobility domain (which includes hours per day out of bed and days per week out of the house) while Davis [44] and Rintala et al. The remaining studies were quasi-experimental in that they did not use randomized assignment to treatment or control groups. [35] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [13] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48]. Two studies from the a single thesis [29] made the remaining 14 comparisons on measures of loneliness distress and complementary loneliness, finding no significant changes to loneliness six months after receiving a hearing dog and no significant group differences in loneliness compared to those without a hearing dog. The authors found three studies reporting an association between having a seizure alert or response dog and improvements to quality of life and wellbeing, concluding a need for more research. The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. purpose-bred from a provider, self-trained) and breeds (e.g., Labrador Retriever, Golden Retriever, Mixes). Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. After receiving an assistance dog, individuals retrospectively report increases to their social, emotional, and psychological health [e.g., 1012]. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks dont give the full picture of animal research. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Jamie Greer, Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? PLoS ONE 15(12): Plants lack a nervous system and therefore cannot be used to learn about psycho- logical phenomena. To achieve the first aim of the reviewto describe study characteristicswe extracted several features of from each study and article (Table 1). However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. Citation: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, OHaire ME (2020) The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. Two of the most well-known animal studies were conducted by Konrad Lorenz and Harry Harlow. Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Even if we accept evolutionary psychology, humans have evolved to be very different from most other animals, perhaps all other animals. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. In the 1950s research which used animal subjects to investigate early life experiences and the ability for organisms to form attachments contributed significantly to the field of developmental psychology. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. Learning and language theories.An interesting insight into the animal world DisadvantagesThe Ethics of animal testing. mobility or guide), thus restricting human participants to a single category of impairments. This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Advantages Useful Findings. Of 34 total quality of life outcomes, 9 (26%) were positive (improved or better quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 22 (65%) were null (no difference) and 3 (9%) were negative (decreased or worse quality of life in comparison to pre- or control conditions). When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. This systematic review identified 24 articles containing 27 studies that assessed a psychosocial outcome of having an assistance dog (guide dog, hearing dog, mobility service dog, or medical service dog). Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies. We can also ask and answer certain questions that would be difficult or impossible to do with humans. The most commonly studied type of assistance dog was mobility service dogs, followed by hearing dogs. Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of Research. However, Guest et al. Using another measure of energy and fatigue, Craft [40] found no difference in those with or without a mobility service dog. Copyright: 2020 Rodriguez et al. Further, as publication bias and the file-drawer effect is an often referenced weakness of the HAI literature [22], two dissertation and thesis databases and abstracts of two conferences were searched for unpublished studies. First, only 59% of studies stated whether ethical approval for human subjects was sought and received. For example, the benefits of an assistance dog for a socially isolated individual who experiences periodic anxiety and depression may be significantly different than an individual without these characteristics. Capitanio, J. Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. (2017, January 1). Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). Humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats, monkeys. Capitanios research interests are focused on developing naturally-occurring nonhuman primate models of psychological processes, in order to better understand the underlying biology of phenomena such as loneliness, inhibited temperament and poor social functioning. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Of 43 total social outcome comparisons, 7 (16%) were positive (improved or better social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 36 (84%) were null (no difference) and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse social health in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Finally, Rodriguez et al. Animal research continues to play a vital role in psychology, enabling discoveries of basic psychological and physiological processes that are important for living healthy lives. Similarly, Crudden et al. As mentioned above, a surprisingly high number of studies did not ensure that assistance dog and control groups were statistically equal across demographic and disability characteristics prior to outcome analyses. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. At this stage, articles were excluded if they were (1) non-English; (2) written for a magazine or other non-peer-reviewed source; (3) book reviews, book chapters, editorials, letters, or opinion papers that did not collect original data; (4) conference abstracts or proceedings; (5) studies assessing companion, therapy, or emotional support animals that were not trained for tasks or work related to a specific disability. Tissue cultures cannot develop depression, alco- holism, autism, learning disorders, memory impairments, aggressive behavior, social abnormalities, or other psychologically relevant prob- lems. A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. MEDLINE search terms and search strategy. However, a recent 2018 review summarized five published quantitative studies describing outcomes from seizure alert and seizure response service dogs. Average age across all studies was 42 +/- 13 years old. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Positive outcomes included significant effects of having an assistance dog on psychological wellbeing, emotional functioning, self-esteem, and vitality. 2016 Jul 20;91(2):453-66. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. We also planned to extract or manually calculate effect sizes to create funnel plots to investigate potential publication biases. In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). Study characteristics of N = 27 studies separated by longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, ordered by publication year. To achieve the second aim of the reviewto evaluate the methodological rigor of studieseach study was assessed if they met a set of 15 methodological rating items using a scale of yes, no, or N/A (Table 2). Animal studies in psychology. John Capitanio, PhD, is a research psychologist in the department of psychology at the University of California, Davis, and a core scientist at the California National Primate Research Center. 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